CHRONOLOGY
1227 C.E. The Golden Horde
This Mongol Khanate ruled Russia through Genghis
Khan’s eldest son, Juji.
1229 C.E. Crusaders Retake Jerusalem
The Sixth Crusade, led by Frederick II, gains control of Jerusalem through a diplomatic settlement with Malik al-Kamil, a nephew of Saladin. Under the agreement, the crusaders control Jerusalem but the Ayyubids rule Damascus and control the valu- able trade routes to India and further east. Internal disputes further weaken the crusader-state.
1229–1241 C.E. Ogotai Becomes Khan
Ogotai, Genghis Khan’s third son, is confirmed as the second Mongol grand khan. He continues conquests in China and eastern Europe.
1232 C.E. First Known Use of Rockets
The Chinese use rockets in battle for the first time. This demonstrated the military use of gunpowder. From this moment the use of gunpowder spreads rapidly around the world.
1235 C.E. Sundiata Defeats King Sumanguru at the
Battle of Kirina
King Sundiata of Mali defeats the Ghanaian ruler King Sumanguru at the Battle of Kirina, making Mali a major power in West Africa.
1236 C.E. Córdoba Taken from Muslim Rulers Ferdinand III captures Córdoba; after 1248 with the capture of Seville, only Granada remains under Mus- lim rule in Andalusia, present-day Spain.
1240 C.E. Nevsky Defeats the Swedes
In 1240, Alexander Nevsky, a Russian prince, defeats the Swedes, near St. Petersburg. The Swedes invade at the request of Pope Gregory IX, who wanted to punish the Orthodox Russians for helping the Finns avoid conversion to Latin Catholicism.
1243 C.E. Seljuk Turks Crushed at Battle of Kosedagh The Seljuks are crushed by the Mongols at the Battle of Kosedagh in present-day Turkey.
1244 C.E. Jerusalem Recaptured by Muslims
Mamluks from Egypt take Jerusalem from the crusaders.
This Mongol Khanate ruled Russia through Genghis
Khan’s eldest son, Juji.
1229 C.E. Crusaders Retake Jerusalem
The Sixth Crusade, led by Frederick II, gains control of Jerusalem through a diplomatic settlement with Malik al-Kamil, a nephew of Saladin. Under the agreement, the crusaders control Jerusalem but the Ayyubids rule Damascus and control the valu- able trade routes to India and further east. Internal disputes further weaken the crusader-state.
1229–1241 C.E. Ogotai Becomes Khan
Ogotai, Genghis Khan’s third son, is confirmed as the second Mongol grand khan. He continues conquests in China and eastern Europe.
1232 C.E. First Known Use of Rockets
The Chinese use rockets in battle for the first time. This demonstrated the military use of gunpowder. From this moment the use of gunpowder spreads rapidly around the world.
1235 C.E. Sundiata Defeats King Sumanguru at the
Battle of Kirina
King Sundiata of Mali defeats the Ghanaian ruler King Sumanguru at the Battle of Kirina, making Mali a major power in West Africa.
1236 C.E. Córdoba Taken from Muslim Rulers Ferdinand III captures Córdoba; after 1248 with the capture of Seville, only Granada remains under Mus- lim rule in Andalusia, present-day Spain.
1240 C.E. Nevsky Defeats the Swedes
In 1240, Alexander Nevsky, a Russian prince, defeats the Swedes, near St. Petersburg. The Swedes invade at the request of Pope Gregory IX, who wanted to punish the Orthodox Russians for helping the Finns avoid conversion to Latin Catholicism.
1243 C.E. Seljuk Turks Crushed at Battle of Kosedagh The Seljuks are crushed by the Mongols at the Battle of Kosedagh in present-day Turkey.
1244 C.E. Jerusalem Recaptured by Muslims
Mamluks from Egypt take Jerusalem from the crusaders.
1250 C.E. Seventh Crusade and the Founding of the
Mamluk Dynasties
In 1250, the Seventh Crusade is defeated by Egyptian forces led by Turanshah who captures Louis IX whom he releases after the payment of a ransom. The Mamluks, former slaves and professional soldiers, subsequently overthrow Turanshah and continue to rule Egypt until 1517.
1250 C.E. Mali King Sundiata Conquers Ghana Sundiata, king of Mali (r. 1234–1255), conquers the older Ghanaian kingdom in West Africa and establishes a huge empire with its capital at Niani on the Upper Niger. The empire becomes wealthy from its control of the trade of salt and gold.
1250 C.E. Migration of Aztecs
First wave of migration of the Mexica (Aztecs) from the northern deserts into the Basin of Mexico.
1250–1280 Chinese Invent the First Gun
The technology for the manufacture of this weapon reached Europe in the 1320s.
1251–1259 C.E. Mongke Made Fourth Grand Khan Mongke is the grandson of Genghis Khan. He continues Mongol expansion against Southern Song China and in the Middle East. His death results in a civil war between his remaining brothers.
1260 C.E. Battle of Ain Jalut
The Mamluks defeat the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in Palestine, ending the Mongol threat to Egypt.
1260 C.E. The Mamluk Sultan Baybars Defeats the
Crusaders
The Mamluk sultan Baybars (r. 1260–1277), drives the crusaders out of most of their holdings.
1260 –1294 C.E. Kubilai Khan Made Fifth Grand Kahn Kubilai’s election split the Mongol Empire. He destroys the Southern Song and establishes the Yuan dynasty centered in China.
1271 C.E. Marco Polo
Marco Polo, accompanied by his father and uncle, sets off for China. They arrive at the court of the Kubilai Khan, where Marco Polo serves Kubilai Khan. He later dictates The Travels about his adventures.
Mamluk Dynasties
In 1250, the Seventh Crusade is defeated by Egyptian forces led by Turanshah who captures Louis IX whom he releases after the payment of a ransom. The Mamluks, former slaves and professional soldiers, subsequently overthrow Turanshah and continue to rule Egypt until 1517.
1250 C.E. Mali King Sundiata Conquers Ghana Sundiata, king of Mali (r. 1234–1255), conquers the older Ghanaian kingdom in West Africa and establishes a huge empire with its capital at Niani on the Upper Niger. The empire becomes wealthy from its control of the trade of salt and gold.
1250 C.E. Migration of Aztecs
First wave of migration of the Mexica (Aztecs) from the northern deserts into the Basin of Mexico.
1250–1280 Chinese Invent the First Gun
The technology for the manufacture of this weapon reached Europe in the 1320s.
1251–1259 C.E. Mongke Made Fourth Grand Khan Mongke is the grandson of Genghis Khan. He continues Mongol expansion against Southern Song China and in the Middle East. His death results in a civil war between his remaining brothers.
1260 C.E. Battle of Ain Jalut
The Mamluks defeat the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in Palestine, ending the Mongol threat to Egypt.
1260 C.E. The Mamluk Sultan Baybars Defeats the
Crusaders
The Mamluk sultan Baybars (r. 1260–1277), drives the crusaders out of most of their holdings.
1260 –1294 C.E. Kubilai Khan Made Fifth Grand Kahn Kubilai’s election split the Mongol Empire. He destroys the Southern Song and establishes the Yuan dynasty centered in China.
1271 C.E. Marco Polo
Marco Polo, accompanied by his father and uncle, sets off for China. They arrive at the court of the Kubilai Khan, where Marco Polo serves Kubilai Khan. He later dictates The Travels about his adventures.
1273 C.E. Founding of the Habsburg Dynasty
The Great Interregnum from 1254 to 1273 ends, and Rudolf I of Habsburg is elected Holy Roman Emperor. In 1278, the Habsburgs gain control over Austria and rule a dynasty that lasts until 1918.
1274 and 1281 C.E. Mongols Fail to Conquer Japan Kubilai Khan’s naval expeditions fail to subjugate Japan. The second one involves an armada of 4,500 ships and 150,000 men. It is destroyed by Japanese resistance and a typhoon.
1282 C.E. King of Denmark Accepts Limitation of Power Danish nobility forces Eric V to sign a Danish “Magna Carta.” This document establishes a Danish parlia- ment that meets once each year and the king is made subordinate to the parliament.
1284 C.E. Genoa Defeats Pisa
The Republic of Genoa fights the rival Italian city- state of Pisa.
1291 C.E. Founding of the Swiss Confederation
Three Swiss cantons form the League of the Three Forest Cantons in 1291; the league is established for mutual defense.
1291 C.E. Fall of the Last Crusader Territory
In 1291 Acre, the last crusader territory, falls to Muslim forces.
1298 C.E. Scottish Rebellion against the English
The English under Edward I win a decisive victory over the Scots at the Battle of Falkirk. The Scots rebelled under the leadership of William Wallace.
1300–1326 C.E. Osman Lays the Foundations of the
Ottoman Empire
Osman (r. 1299–1326) leads his Ghazi warriors into battle and extends his rule in the Anatolian Peninsula; his son Orhan then takes Bursa that becomes the cap- ital of the new Ottoman Empire.
1302 C.E. Philip IV Calls Meeting of the Estates General King Philip IV of France calls together representatives of the nobility, townspeople, and clergy for the first time; the gathering becomes known as the Estates General.
1309 C.E. Avignonese Papacy
Pope Clement V, heavily influenced by King Philip
IV, moves the papacy to Avignon, France. Clement rescinds Boniface’s pronouncements against Philip.
1314 C.E. Battle of Bannockburn, Scotland
The Scots, led by Robert the Bruce, rout a larger force led by Edward II, king of England.
1314–1317 C.E. Great European Famine
The worst famine to strike Europe occurs. It is wide- spread and affects all of northern Europe.
1315 C.E. Swiss Victory
Swiss forces gain a victory over Leopold I (Habsburg), duke of Austria, at the Battle of Morgarten. The vic- tory leads to an expanded Swiss alliance.
1324–1325 The Mali King Mansa Kankan Musa
Makes Famous Pilgrimage to Mecca
At the height of his powers as king of Mali, Mansa Kankan Musa and an enormous entourage laden with gold travel from West Africa to Arabia.
1325 C.E. Foundation of Tenochtitlán
According to Aztec legend, the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy and year of the foundation of their capital island-city of Tenochtitlán in the Basin of Mexico.
1337 C.E. Hundred Years’ War
The Hundred Years’ War begins when Philip VI con-tests the English claim to Normandy and other north- ern provinces in France.
1338 C.E. Ashikaga Shogunate
Established by Ashikaga Takauji, the Ashikaga replaces the Kamakura Shogunate in Japan. It lasts until 1573, though exercising effective power only during its first century.
1340 C.E. Battle of Crécy
A smaller British force under the command of Edward III defeats a French army under the command of Philip VI.
1347–1353 C.E. Black Death
The Black Death (bubonic plague) that spread through- out Europe between 1347 and 1353 is the worst natural disaster in European history. It is estimated that of a population of 75 million people, between 19 million and 35 million die.
The Great Interregnum from 1254 to 1273 ends, and Rudolf I of Habsburg is elected Holy Roman Emperor. In 1278, the Habsburgs gain control over Austria and rule a dynasty that lasts until 1918.
1274 and 1281 C.E. Mongols Fail to Conquer Japan Kubilai Khan’s naval expeditions fail to subjugate Japan. The second one involves an armada of 4,500 ships and 150,000 men. It is destroyed by Japanese resistance and a typhoon.
1282 C.E. King of Denmark Accepts Limitation of Power Danish nobility forces Eric V to sign a Danish “Magna Carta.” This document establishes a Danish parlia- ment that meets once each year and the king is made subordinate to the parliament.
1284 C.E. Genoa Defeats Pisa
The Republic of Genoa fights the rival Italian city- state of Pisa.
1291 C.E. Founding of the Swiss Confederation
Three Swiss cantons form the League of the Three Forest Cantons in 1291; the league is established for mutual defense.
1291 C.E. Fall of the Last Crusader Territory
In 1291 Acre, the last crusader territory, falls to Muslim forces.
1298 C.E. Scottish Rebellion against the English
The English under Edward I win a decisive victory over the Scots at the Battle of Falkirk. The Scots rebelled under the leadership of William Wallace.
1300–1326 C.E. Osman Lays the Foundations of the
Ottoman Empire
Osman (r. 1299–1326) leads his Ghazi warriors into battle and extends his rule in the Anatolian Peninsula; his son Orhan then takes Bursa that becomes the cap- ital of the new Ottoman Empire.
1302 C.E. Philip IV Calls Meeting of the Estates General King Philip IV of France calls together representatives of the nobility, townspeople, and clergy for the first time; the gathering becomes known as the Estates General.
1309 C.E. Avignonese Papacy
Pope Clement V, heavily influenced by King Philip
IV, moves the papacy to Avignon, France. Clement rescinds Boniface’s pronouncements against Philip.
1314 C.E. Battle of Bannockburn, Scotland
The Scots, led by Robert the Bruce, rout a larger force led by Edward II, king of England.
1314–1317 C.E. Great European Famine
The worst famine to strike Europe occurs. It is wide- spread and affects all of northern Europe.
1315 C.E. Swiss Victory
Swiss forces gain a victory over Leopold I (Habsburg), duke of Austria, at the Battle of Morgarten. The vic- tory leads to an expanded Swiss alliance.
1324–1325 The Mali King Mansa Kankan Musa
Makes Famous Pilgrimage to Mecca
At the height of his powers as king of Mali, Mansa Kankan Musa and an enormous entourage laden with gold travel from West Africa to Arabia.
1325 C.E. Foundation of Tenochtitlán
According to Aztec legend, the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy and year of the foundation of their capital island-city of Tenochtitlán in the Basin of Mexico.
1337 C.E. Hundred Years’ War
The Hundred Years’ War begins when Philip VI con-tests the English claim to Normandy and other north- ern provinces in France.
1338 C.E. Ashikaga Shogunate
Established by Ashikaga Takauji, the Ashikaga replaces the Kamakura Shogunate in Japan. It lasts until 1573, though exercising effective power only during its first century.
1340 C.E. Battle of Crécy
A smaller British force under the command of Edward III defeats a French army under the command of Philip VI.
1347–1353 C.E. Black Death
The Black Death (bubonic plague) that spread through- out Europe between 1347 and 1353 is the worst natural disaster in European history. It is estimated that of a population of 75 million people, between 19 million and 35 million die.
1356 Nanjing Capital of Ming Dynasty
After consolidating southern China, the founder of the Ming dynasty establishes his capital in Nanjing (Nanking). It remains capital until 1421 when it is moved to Beijing (Peking).
1356 C.E. Battle of Poitiers
At the Battle of Poitiers, Edward, the “Black Prince” of Wales, defeats the French. In the course of the bat- tle, the French king, John II, is taken prisoner and brought to England.
1362 C.E. Murad I Takes Title as Sultan of the Ottoman
At Kosovo the Ottoman forces defeat the Serbs in a battle that becomes an important milestone in Balkan history.
1392 Yi Dynasty in Korea
Founded by General Yi Songgye, this dynasty (also known as the Li dynasty), with the capital located at modern-day Seoul, lasts until 1910.
1397 C.E. Union of Kalamar
Magaret, queen of Sweden, completes the conquest of Denmark and Norway. She then forms the Kalamar League, a union of all three countries.
Empire
Murad I takes the title of sultan of the Ottoman Empire and leads his forces into Thrace, taking Adri- anople, which then becomes the new Ottoman capital of Edirne.
After consolidating southern China, the founder of the Ming dynasty establishes his capital in Nanjing (Nanking). It remains capital until 1421 when it is moved to Beijing (Peking).
1356 C.E. Battle of Poitiers
At the Battle of Poitiers, Edward, the “Black Prince” of Wales, defeats the French. In the course of the bat- tle, the French king, John II, is taken prisoner and brought to England.
1362 C.E. Murad I Takes Title as Sultan of the Ottoman
At Kosovo the Ottoman forces defeat the Serbs in a battle that becomes an important milestone in Balkan history.
1392 Yi Dynasty in Korea
Founded by General Yi Songgye, this dynasty (also known as the Li dynasty), with the capital located at modern-day Seoul, lasts until 1910.
1397 C.E. Union of Kalamar
Magaret, queen of Sweden, completes the conquest of Denmark and Norway. She then forms the Kalamar League, a union of all three countries.
Empire
Murad I takes the title of sultan of the Ottoman Empire and leads his forces into Thrace, taking Adri- anople, which then becomes the new Ottoman capital of Edirne.
1400 C.E. Kingdom of Malacca Founded
The Kingdom of Malacca is founded on the Malay Peninsula in current-day Indonesia. Malacca, which is founded by Paramesva, soon becomes the leading maritime power in Southeast Asia.
The Kingdom of Malacca is founded on the Malay Peninsula in current-day Indonesia. Malacca, which is founded by Paramesva, soon becomes the leading maritime power in Southeast Asia.
1368 C.E. Ming Dynasty Established
Zhu Yuanzhang leads a successful revolt that expells the Mongols from China. Zhu rules as Ming emperor Taizu and begins the rebuilding of China.
1369 C.E. Timurlane Conquers Empire
A descendant of Genghis Khan, Timurlane sets out from Samarkand and conquers and despoils Russia, Afghanistan, the Middle East, and northern India.
1377 C.E. Ibn Khaldun as Pioneer in the Study of the
Philosophy of History
Ibn Khaldun, born in present-day Tunisia, begins his pioneering study in the philosophy of history.
1381 C.E. War of Chioggia
The Venetians and the Genoese fight in the War of Chioggia. The Genoese blockade the Venetians after seizing Chioggia, but the Venetian fleet defeats the Genoese thereby beginning the golden age of Venice.
1381 C.E. Peasants’ Revolt in England
Peasants, led by Wat Tyler, rebel against high poll taxes, leading to reforms of the old feudal system in England.
1385 C.E. Portugal Free from Spain
The Portuguese, under John the Great, fight Castile at the Battle of Ajubarrota; their victory ensures the independence of Portugal.
1389 C.E. Ottomans Defeat the Serbs at the Battle of
Kosovo
Zhu Yuanzhang leads a successful revolt that expells the Mongols from China. Zhu rules as Ming emperor Taizu and begins the rebuilding of China.
1369 C.E. Timurlane Conquers Empire
A descendant of Genghis Khan, Timurlane sets out from Samarkand and conquers and despoils Russia, Afghanistan, the Middle East, and northern India.
1377 C.E. Ibn Khaldun as Pioneer in the Study of the
Philosophy of History
Ibn Khaldun, born in present-day Tunisia, begins his pioneering study in the philosophy of history.
1381 C.E. War of Chioggia
The Venetians and the Genoese fight in the War of Chioggia. The Genoese blockade the Venetians after seizing Chioggia, but the Venetian fleet defeats the Genoese thereby beginning the golden age of Venice.
1381 C.E. Peasants’ Revolt in England
Peasants, led by Wat Tyler, rebel against high poll taxes, leading to reforms of the old feudal system in England.
1385 C.E. Portugal Free from Spain
The Portuguese, under John the Great, fight Castile at the Battle of Ajubarrota; their victory ensures the independence of Portugal.
1389 C.E. Ottomans Defeat the Serbs at the Battle of
Kosovo
1400 C.E. Rise of Inca Empire
The beginning of the rise of the Inca Empire in the
Peruvian highlands.
1402 C.E. Timurlane Defeats the Ottoman Sultan
Bayezid at the Battle of Ankara
At the Battle of Ankara, Timurlane defeats Sultan Bayezid; he dies in captivity and Timurlane turns over the Anatolia territories to Bayezid’s sons.
1403 C.E. Mehmed (Mehmet) I Reunites and Expands the Ottoman Empire
Mehmed I (r. 1403–21), begins to reunite and expand the Ottoman Empire after the loss to Timurlane.
1403 C.E. Moveable Type Invented in Korea
This was an important improvement on the block printing first invented and used in China in the ninth century.
1403 C.E. Yongle Becomes Ruler of the Ming
Yongle (Yung-lo) defeats his nephew and becomes emperor of the Ming dynasty. He crushes the Mon- gols, moves the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and sends naval expeditions across the Indian Ocean to the east coast of Africa.
1405 C.E. Mongol Empire Divided
Timurlane, the leader of the Mongols, dies suddenly while preparing to attack Ming China. With his death the Mongol Empire rapidly falls apart.
1405–1433 C.E. Explorations of Zheng HeThe beginning of the rise of the Inca Empire in the
Peruvian highlands.
1402 C.E. Timurlane Defeats the Ottoman Sultan
Bayezid at the Battle of Ankara
At the Battle of Ankara, Timurlane defeats Sultan Bayezid; he dies in captivity and Timurlane turns over the Anatolia territories to Bayezid’s sons.
1403 C.E. Mehmed (Mehmet) I Reunites and Expands the Ottoman Empire
Mehmed I (r. 1403–21), begins to reunite and expand the Ottoman Empire after the loss to Timurlane.
1403 C.E. Moveable Type Invented in Korea
This was an important improvement on the block printing first invented and used in China in the ninth century.
1403 C.E. Yongle Becomes Ruler of the Ming
Yongle (Yung-lo) defeats his nephew and becomes emperor of the Ming dynasty. He crushes the Mon- gols, moves the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and sends naval expeditions across the Indian Ocean to the east coast of Africa.
1405 C.E. Mongol Empire Divided
Timurlane, the leader of the Mongols, dies suddenly while preparing to attack Ming China. With his death the Mongol Empire rapidly falls apart.
Ming admiral Zheng He (Cheng Ho) sails in six mari- time expeditions. The expeditions showed the flag, cleared pirates, and promoted trade across Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.
1410 C.E. Battle of Tannenberg
The Poles and the Lithuanians defeat German knights at the Battle of Tannenberg. Despite the victory, at the Peace of Thorn signed in 1411, the Poles fail to gain access to the sea.
1415 C.E. Battle of Agincourt
The English decisively defeat the French at the Battle of Agincourt. As a result, the French nobility is shat- tered and the feudal system is destroyed. Normandy lays open to reconquest by the English.
1415 C.E. Henry the Navigator Takes Ceuta
The Portuguese explorer and prince, Henry the Navigator, captures Ceuta on the northern coast of present- day Morocco. This begins the Portuguese conquest of coastal areas and cities around Africa.
1420 C.E. Chinese Capital Beijing (Peking)
The second Ming emperor moves the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing.
1420 C.E. Treaty of Troyes
The French under Philip and England under Henry V sign the Treaty of Troyes. Under the terms of the treaty Henry becomes the king of both France and England.
1421 C.E. Murad II Enlarges the Ottoman Empire Murad II (r. 1421–44; 1446–51) brings all of western Anatolia under his control and takes Salonica.
1424 C.E. France Invades Italy
Charles VIII, king of France, begins the Italian Wars by invading Italy; Naples surrenders to Charles and he temporarily becomes the king of Naples.
1428 C.E. Aztecs Gain Predominance in Basin of
Mexico
Aztecs become the “first among equals” in the Triple Alliance with city-states of Texcoco and Tlacopán in the Basin of Mexico, the beginning of the Aztec Empire’s domination of much of central and southern Mexico.
1429 C.E. Joan of Arc Frees Orléans
War between France and England continues on and off, despite various agreements for peace. In 1428, the English lay siege to the city of Orléans. Joan of Arc, a young girl from Lorraine, begins to have visions and claims to hear voices; she convinces the French dau- phin to provide her with a small army that liberates Orléans. However she is ultimately captured by the English and put to death.
1431 C.E. Angkor Sacked
Angkor, the capital of the Khmer, is captured and sacked by the Thai. The Khmer Empire is forced to move its capital to the present site of the Cambodian capital Phnom Penh.
1433 C.E. Tauregs Occupy Timbuktu
In 1433–34 the nomadic Tauregs occupy Timbuktu; this weakens the kingdom of Mali that would fall in the mid-15th century.
1435 C.E. Peace Treaty of Arras
Duke Philip of Burgundy signs a peace treaty with Charles VI that recognizes Charles as the one king of France.
1438 C.E. Inca Dynasty Founded
The Inca dynasty that rules Peru until 1553 is founded in 1438. Its founder is said to have been Pachacutec. He rapidly expands the empire.
1440 C.E. Ewuare the Great Rules Benin
Ewuare the Great (r. 1440–73) rules a rich West Afric- nan kingdom stretching from Lagos to the Niger.
1444 C.E. Ottomans Win the Battle of Varna
In 1444 the Hungarians, the Byzantine emperor, and the pope join forces in a crusade to defeat the Ottomans and push them out of Europe; however, Murad II commands a victorious Ottoman army at the Battle of Varna, marking the end of Western attempts to regain the Balkans and assist Constantinople.
1450 C.E. Printing Press Invented in Europe
In 1450 Johann Gutenberg invents the printing press, which revolutionizes communication and education.
1450 C.E. Decline of Mayapán
The Maya city-state of Mayapán splinters into numer- ous petty kingdoms the in northern lowlands of Cen- tral America.
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