Chronology
480 B.C.E. Thermopylae
and Salamis
The
Persians’ quest for world
domination is stopped for the second time, allowing the flowering of Greek civilization, especially in Athens.
479
B.C.E. Founding of Confucianism
Confucius—China’s greatest philosopher—founds
the school of Confucianism, which becomes China’s state philosophy in
the second century
b.c.e.
470–391 B.C.E. Moism Is Founded
Moism, a school of philosophy, is founded by Mozi. It flourishes during the Hundred Schools era in China and subsequently dies out.
460 B.C.E. Age of Pericles
The
age of Pericles lasts from 461 (when Pericles
becomes the dominant politician in Athens) until 429. It is a period
of expanding democracy at home and increasing imperialism abroad.
431–404 B.C.E. Peloponnesian War
For
27 years, Athens
and Sparta engage in warfare. The war ends with a Spartan victory.
429 B.C.E. Hippocratic
Oath
Named after the famous Greek physician,
the oath is still taken by contemporary physicians.
400 B.C.E. Andean Civilizations
Decline of Chavín culture complex in Central High-
lands and central
Pacific coast and the rise of Pukará polities in northern Titicaca Basin.
400 B.C.E. Late Preclassic in Maya Zones
The end of the Middle Preclassic period and beginning of the Late Preclassic in the Maya zones of
Mesoamerica.
400 B.C.E. Decline of the Kush
Kushite kingdom with capital at Meroë, in present-day
Sudan, begins to decline.
399 B.C.E. Socrates Dies
Socrates, the foremost Greek philosopher,
who taught Plato, author of the Republic,
dies. Their work had a major impact on Western
thought.
390 B.C.E. Axum Kingdom in East Africa
Axum kingdom based in Ethiopia expands its rule and ultimately defeats the Kushite kingdom.
371 B.C.E. Battle at Leuctra
Sparta is defeated at the
Battle
of Leuctra by Epae- minondas of
Thebes.
The
defeat
shatters
the
myth of Spartan
invincibility
and
ends Sparta’s hegemony over Greece.
359 B.C.E. Philip II
Philip II becomes regent of Macedonia and reorganizes the army to make it one of the strongest
in Greece.
334 B.C.E. Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great
leads a Greek
army
of 35,000 soldiers
into
battle
against
the Persian army led by Darius III at
Granicus. Alexander’s troops gain the upper
hand
and
kill
or
capture
half
of the Persian
army, which is forced to retreat.
331 B.C.E. Battle of Gaugamela
Darius III and the Persian
Empire make a final stand in October 331 at Gaugamela near Arbela
in the heart
of Assyria.
Nearly 1 million men face an army of 50,000 Macedonians under Alexander. Forced
to flee the battlefield, Darius
is pursued and
eventually assassinated, thereby ending the Persian
Empire.
330 B.C.E. Reforms of Shang
Lord
Shang becomes chief minister of the state
of Qin in China and begins to implement legalism as its state philosophy.
326 B.C.E. Mauryan Empire
The
Maurya dynasty is
founded in India by Chandra- gupta Maurya. It will unite
most of the Indian sub- continent plus Afghanistan.
321 B.C.E. Ptolemy
Ptolemy, ruler of Egypt, defeats
Antigonus at the Bat- tle of Gaza.
Ptolemy is supported by Seleucus, who goes on to reconquer Babylonia.
300 B.C.E. Yayoi Culture in Japan
This neolithic culture
replaces the more
primitive
Jomon
culture.
300 B.C.E. Euclid Publishes
Elements
The
Greek mathematician Euclid, living in Alexan- dria, publishes a 13-volume work called Elements that lays out, for the first time, the principles of geometry.
300 B.C.E. Bantus in Western Africa
Bantus in western Africa
use iron implements, skills
perhaps gained
from Kushites.
269–232 B.C.E. Mauryan Empire
Ashoka
expands the Mauryan Empire of India to its maximum. He
converts to Buddhism and convenes the third Buddhist Council.
265–241 B.C.E. First Punic War
The First Punic War
is fought between Rome and
Carthage over claims to Sicily.
245 B.C.E. Third Syrian War
The
Third Syrian
War starts when
Ptolemy
III’s sis-
ter is killed by his former wife. Ptolemy responds by invading
the Seleucid
Empire, advancing all the way to Bactria.
240 B.C.E. Archemides Shows Value of Pi
Archemides, the Greek mathematician, is the first to determine the value of pi. He also successfully calculates the area of a circle.
218–201 B.C.E. Second Punic War
Carthage and Rome fight a 17-year
war. It takes place in both Italy, which is attacked by Hannibal, and then Carthage. Rome is victorious.
221 B.C.E. Qin State Unifies China
Qin state in northwestern China establishes a national dynasty
and begins imperial age in Chinese history.
216 B.C.E. First Macedonian War
The
first Macedonian War breaks
out when Philip V of Macedonia invades Illyria. The Romans use
their superior naval forces
to stop the Macedonians.
209 B.C.E. Maotun Unites Xiongnu Tribes
The
Xiongnu nomadic tribes will become dominant
in the steppes and formidable foes of China
for the next three centuries.
206 B.C.E. Xiang Yu Attempts
to Unify China
With the end of the
Qin dynasty,
Xiang
emerges as the strongest contender for leadership of China. He is
defeated by Liu Bang in 202 b.c.e.
202 B.C.E. Han Dynasty in China
Founded by
commoner Liu Bang, the Han consolidates the
imperial tradition begun in the Qin dynasty.
200 B.C.E. Bantu Migrations in Africa
Bantu migrations from western Africa into central and southern Africa begin
and last
for several
hundred years; Bantus are largely agriculturalists.
195 B.C.E. Wei Man Establishes
Kingdom in
North
Korea
Wei Man
flees China
with followers and sets up rule centered at
Pyongyang in Korea.
His family
rules until China annexes
northern Korea in 109 b.c.e.
195–180 B.C.E. Empress Lu of China
Wife of Liu Bang, she rules as regent
after his death;
she attempts but fails to establish her own dynasty.
149 B.C.E. Third Punic War
The Roman
army lands at Carthage and lays siege to the city. After a three-year siege, the Romans
capture Carthage and destroy
the city.
149–148 B.C.E. Fourth Macedonian War
The Macedonians led by Andricus rebel against Roman rule. The Romans
defeat the Macedonians and make Macedonia a province of Rome.
144 B.C.E. Aqueducts in Rome
The Romans
develop an extensive
aqueduct system to bring water to Rome.
141–87 B.C.E. Han Wudi
His reign sees
successful Chinese offensives against the Xiongnu
and the beginning of Chinese dominance of
Central Asia. The Silk Road flourishes
and Confucianism becomes
China’s state ideology.
138 B.C.E. Zhang Qian “discovers” Central
Asia
for
China
His epic journeys
leads to Chinese
interest in Central
Asia and East-West trade via the Silk Road.
111 B.C.E. Annam Conquered by Han China
Annam (North Vietnam) comes under Chinese political rule and cultural
influence.
108 B.C.E. Northern Korea Conquered by Han China
It comes under Chinese political
rule and cultural influence.
100 B.C.E. Nabatean City of Petra
Nabateans, an Arab tribe, establish
a thriving commercial state
at Petra
in present-day southern Jordan.
91–88 B.C.E. Social War
The Social War breaks
out when Italians
who are not citizens of the Roman Empire
revolt.
87 B.C.E. Sima Qian completes The Historical Records
Sima Qian writes the complete
history of the Chinese world up to his time, which becomes the exemplar of later Chinese
historical writing.
82 B.C.E. Consul Sulla Enters Rome
Consul Sulla
returns to Rome
after
subduing
opponents
of
Roman rule. Sulla is elected dictator of Rome.
73 B.C.E. Third Servile War
The
most famous slave revolt, known as the Third Servile War, is led by the
slave Spartacus, a gladiator; Spartacus and his men seize Mount Vesuvius,
and thousands of slaves flock to his support.
69 B.C.E. Cleopatra
Cleopatra reigns as queen
of Egypt from 69 to 30
b.c.e.
65 B.C.E. Pompey’s Conquest
Roman forces under Pompey defeat Mithridates
VI, king of Pontus. Pompey
forces Mithridates to flee to the eastern
Black Sea region and then to Armenia.
60 B.C.E. Triumvirate
Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Marcus Crassus
form the first triumvirate to rule Rome.
57 B.C.E. Caesar Defeats Tribes
Julius Caesar defeats the Celtic Helvetica tribes from what is present-day Switzerland
at
Bibracate in present-day
France.
55 B.C.E. Caesar Invades Britain
Caesar leads Roman troops
across the Straits of Dover and
returns
to
England
the
next
year with a larger force to defeat the Catuvellauni and establish Roman sovereignty over parts of England.
50 B.C.E. Kingdoms of Korea Founded
The
kingdoms of Korea are founded
around 50 b.c.e. There are the Koguryo
in the north, Silla in the southeast,
and Pakche in the southwest.
49 B.C.E. Caesar Crosses the Rubicon
Julius Caesar and his army cross the Rubicon
in northern Italy. By crossing
the Rubicon, Caesar defies
91–88 B.C.E. Social War
The Social War breaks out when Italians
who are not citizens of the Roman Empire
revolt.
B.C.E. Sima Qian completes The Historical Records
Sima Qian writes
the complete history
of the Chinese world up to his time, which becomes the exemplar
of later
Chinese historical writing.
73 B.C.E. Consul Sulla Enters Rome
Consul Sulla
returns to Rome
after subduing opponents
of
Roman rule. Sulla is
elected dictator
of
Rome.
73 B.C.E. Third Servile War
The most famous
slave revolt, known as the Third Servile War, is led by the
slave Spartacus, a gladiator; Spartacus and his men seize Mount Vesuvius,
and thousands of slaves flock to his support.
69 B.C.E. Cleopatra
Cleopatra
reigns
as queen of Egypt
from
69
to
30
b.c.e.
65 B.C.E. Pompey’s Conquest
Roman forces
under Pompey defeat Mithridates
VI, king of Pontus. Pompey
forces Mithridates to flee to the eastern
Black Sea region and then to Armenia.
60 B.C.E. Triumvirate
Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Marcus
Crassus form the first triumvirate to rule Rome.
57 B.C.E. Caesar Defeats Tribes
Julius Caesar defeats the Celtic
Helvetica tribes
from what is present-day Switzerland
at
Bibracate in present-day
France.
55 B.C.E. Caesar Invades Britain
Caesar leads Roman troops across
the Straits of Dover and returns to England the
next
year with a larger force to defeat the Catuvellauni and establish Roman sovereignty over parts of England.
50 B.C.E. Kingdoms of Korea Founded
The kingdoms of Korea are founded around 50
b.c.e. There are the Koguryo
in the north, Silla in the southeast,
and Pakche in the southwest.
49 B.C.E. Caesar Crosses the Rubicon
Julius Caesar
and his army cross the Rubicon
in northern Italy. By crossing
the Rubicon, Caesar defies
the
Senate and is guilty of treason.
Pompey is forced to
flee as Roman soldiers flock to Caesar,
who successfully gains control
of all Italy.
44 B.C.E. Caesar Assassinated
Caesar is assassinated by a group
of Roman senators that includes Marcus Brutus. The death of Caesar
is
followed by a power struggle between Mark Antony and
Octavian.
43 B.C.E. Cicero Assassinated
Cicero, the great Roman
orator, denounces Antony. In retaliation, Antony orders the assassination of Cicero.
42 B.C.E. Antony Defeats Cassius
Mark
Antony battles the forces of Cassius at Philippi. Cassius is defeated and commits
suicide. Twenty days later, forces
under Brutus
are also defeated, and Brutus commits
suicide.
37 B.C.E. Herod the Great
Herod the Great is recognized
by the Roman Senate as king of Judaea.
The Hasmonean dynasty
that had ruled Judaea until this period allies
themselves with the Parthians, who are defeated by Mark
Antony’s forces.
31 B.C.E. Battle of Actium
Mark Antony and Octavian fight a naval battle at Actium off Epirus
in western Greece.
Although the battle is decisive, Antony and his love, Cleopatra, flee to Egypt, where Antony’s
army
surrenders. Antony
and Cleopatra kill themselves soon after.
27 B.C.E. Octavian
Octavian becomes the “Augustus,” and the era of the
Roman Empire begins.
27 B.C.E. Octavian
Octavian becomes the “Augustus,” and the era of the
Roman Empire begins.
6 C.E. Herod Deposed
Herod Archelaus is deposed by the Roman emperor
Augustus.
9 C.E. German Tribes Destroy
Roman Legions
Three
Roman legions are defeated by a German
army led by Ariminus, thereby
ensuring German independence from Rome.
9 C.E. Xin Dynasty
Wang Mang usurps the Han throne, ending the Western Han dynasty
and establishes the Xin dynasty.
18 C.E. Red Eyebrow Rebellion
Peasant rebellion
in China contributes to
the downfall of Wang Mang’s usurpation.
25–220 C.E. Eastern Han Dynasty
After
the death of Wang Mang, the Han dynasty is restored, called the Eastern Han.
30 or 33 C.E. Jesus Crucified
Jesus Christ is put to death by the Romans
in Jerusalem.
39 C.E. Revolt of Trung Sisters
Unsuccessful revolt of Annam
(North Vietnam) from
Chinese rule.
64 C.E. Rome Burns
The city of Rome is
nearly destroyed in a catastrophic fire. The fire is said
to have been
set by the emperor Nero.
66 C.E. Judaea Rebels against Rome
A rebellion breaks
out in Jerusalem
against Roman rule. The Romans dispatch an army from Syria to quell the revolt, but it is destroyed
on the way to Jerusalem.
68 C.E. Year of the Four Emperors
Four
separate emperors rule Rome.
70 C.E. Jerusalem Falls
Titus succeeds
in capturing Jerusalem; he burns
Jerusalem,
killing or selling into slavery
tens of thousands
of Jews.
78 C.E. Kushan Empire
The
Kushan dynasty is established
by King Kanishka. It extends from Afghanistan to the Indus Valley and is the
melting pot of Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian cultures.
79 C.E. Mount Vesuvius Explodes
Mount Vesuvius erupts, destroying
the Roman cities
of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
96–180 C.E. Five Good Emperors
Starting with Emperor
Marcus
Nerva,
Rome is ruled by five individuals who become
known as the Good Emperors.
100 C.E. Emergence of Moche Culture
in Peru
Moche culture, which is hierarchical with
warrior-
priest kings, emerges in Peru and flourishes until approximately 700 c.e.
C.E. Red Eyebrow
Rebellion
Peasant rebellion in China contributes to
the downfall of Wang Mang’s usurpation.
–220 C.E. Eastern Han Dynasty
After the death
of Wang
Mang,
the
Han
dynasty
is
restored, called
the Eastern Han.
or 33 C.E. Jesus Crucified
100 C.E. Terminal Preclassic Period in Maya Zones
The
end of the Late Preclassic period and beginning
of the Terminal Preclassic in the Maya zones of Meso- america.
122 C.E. Hadrian’s Wall Is Built
The
Roman emperor Hadrian orders the construction of a defensive wall stretching
70 miles across northern England
to keep out the Scottish
tribes.
Jesus Christ
is put to death by the Romans
in Jerusalem.
C.E. Revolt of Trung Sisters
Unsuccessful revolt of Annam (North Vietnam)
from
Chinese rule.
C.E. Rome Burns
The city of Rome is nearly destroyed in a catastrophic fire. The fire is said to have
been set by the emperor
132 C.E. Bar Kokhba Revolt
The
Jews of Jerusalem rise up in rebellion in 132 after the Romans build a temple
to Jupiter on the site of the Jewish Temple. The revolt is led by Simon
bar Kokhba and Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph but is ultimately crushed.
167 C.E. German Tribes
Invade Northern Italy
Nero.
The German tribes cross the Danube River
and attack
C.E. Judaea Rebels against Rome
A rebellion breaks
out in Jerusalem
against Roman rule. The Romans dispatch an army from Syria to quell the revolt, but it is destroyed
on the way to Jerusalem.
C.E. Year of the Four Emperors
Four separate emperors
rule Rome.
C.E. Jerusalem Falls
Titus succeeds in capturing Jerusalem; he burns
Jerusalem,
killing or selling into slavery
tens of thousands
of Jews.
C.E. Kushan Empire
The Kushan dynasty
is established by King Kanishka. It extends from Afghanistan to the Indus Valley and is the
melting pot of Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian cultures.
C.E. Mount Vesuvius Explodes
Mount Vesuvius erupts, destroying the Roman cities
of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
–180 C.E. Five Good Emperors
Starting with Emperor Marcus Nerva, Rome is ruled by five individuals who become
known as the Good Emperors.
0 C.E. Emergence of Moche Culture
in Peru
Moche culture, which is hierarchical with
warrior-
priest kings, emerges in Peru and flourishes until approximately 700 c.e.
the
Roman Empire.
180 C.E. Marcus Aurelius Dies
Marcus Aurelius dies and is succeeded
by
his son,
Commodus. Commodus is the first emperor
since Domitian to
succeed by virtue of birth, rather
than by assassination.
184 C.E. Revolt of the Yellow Turbans
A peasant revolt in China contributes to the fall of the
Eastern Han dynasty.
200 C.E. Teotihuacán in Mexico
Teotihuacán, a vast urban
center
with pyramids and public buildings
in Mexico, flourishes to c. 600.
220 C.E. Han Dynasty ends
Last
Han emperor is forced to abdicate.
220–265 C.E. Three Kingdoms in China
Era
of wars between three
regional states—Wei, Shu
Han, and
Wu—for control of China.
250 C.E. Early Classic Period
in Maya Zones
Beginning of the Early Classic
Period in the highlands and lowlands of
the
Maya zones of
Meso- america.
265–589 C.E. Period of Division
Northern China is ruled after 317 by nomadic dynasties of Turkic ethnicity, while southern China remains with ethnic
Chinese dynasties. Buddhism is dominant
in both north and
south.
267 C.E. Queen Zenobia Rules Palmyra
Zenobia rules rich trading entrepôt at Palmyra in northeastern present-day Syria and fights against
Roman domination until her defeat in 272.
300 C.E. Axum Kingdom in East Africa
Axum
kingdom rules Ethiopia
and later much of
present-day Sudan after
defeating
Kushites;
under
King
‘Ezana, Ethiopia becomes a Christian country.
320 C.E. Gupta Dynasty
The Gupta Empire is founded by
Chandragupta I. Under his
successor
the
Gupta Empire extends to include all of northern India.
324 C.E. Constantine
the Great
Constantine the Great initiates
a civil war of succession
against his potential rivals
for the throne. In
a series of engagements that
culminates
in 324 at
the Battle of Adrianople (in present-day Turkey), Constantine defeats his rivals and becomes
the undisputed emperor of all Rome.
330 C.E. Byzantium Constantine the Great dedicates his new capital
at
Byzantium, renamed after himself
as Constantinople.
337 C.E. Roman Empire
Divides
Constantine dies, and the empire is
divided with the Western Roman
Empire
governed from Rome and the Eastern
Roman Empire governed
by Constantinople.
357 C.E. Battle of Argentoratum
At
the Battle of Argentoratum in 357, the
Roman general Julian drives
the Franks from Gaul,
thus
reestablishing the Rhine as the frontier
of the empire.
376–415 C.E. Chandragupta II
India
reaches its golden classical age. Both Buddhism
and Hinduism flourish.
376 C.E. Ostrogoths
Invaded
The
Huns, a nomadic
Mongol
people, sweep in from
Asia
and defeat the Ostrogoth Empire.
378 C.E. Valens Killed by Visigoths
After their defeat
by the Huns, the Visigoths
seek refuge
in the Roman Empire.
The
Roman
emperor Valens gives them permission to cross the Danube
as long as they agree to disarm, but the Visigoths are mistreated by Roman officials and revolt.
405–411 C.E. Fa Xian Travels to India
Chinese Buddhist
monk travels
to India, records Gupta culture, and returns
to China with Buddhist manuscripts.
407 C.E. Romans Withdraw from Britain
Western Roman
Emperor Honorius withdraws his troops
from Britain.
410 C.E. Rome Sacked by Visigoths
After a decade of battles, the Visigoths under
Alaric sack Rome in 410.
439 C.E. Carthage Captured by Vandals
The Roman
city of Carthage is
captured by Vandals under
the command of Genseric, who
makes Carthage his capital.
441 C.E. First Saxon Revolt
The first Saxon
revolt against
native Britons occurs in 441.
451 C.E. Attila the Hun
Defeated
Attila faces the Visigoths and
Romans together
in the Battle of Chalons
(Châlons). Attila
is defeated and forced to withdraw.
455 C.E. Saxons Crushs
Britons
At the Battle of Aylesford in Kent, England,
the Saxons led by Hengst and Horsa
defeat the Britons. This battle is an important step in the Saxon conquest
of Britain.
455 C.E. Vandals Sack Rome
The Vandals attack
and invade Rome.
476 C.E. Western Roman Empire Ends
The Western Roman Empire ends
after
Emperor Romulus Augustulus
is deposed
by German mercenaries at
Ravenna.
The
German
mercenaries then declare themselves
rulers of Italy.
486 C.E. Roman Occupation of Gaul Ends
The last Roman
emperor of France
is defeated by Clovis I, king of the Salian Franks, and Clovis establishes the Kingdom of the Franks.
488 C.E. Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy
Theodoric I (the
Great) invades
northern Italy at the request
of the Byzantine
emperor. He conquers Italy and establishes the Ostrogothic Kingdom
of Italy.
500 C.E. Ghanaian Kingdom in West Africa
The Ghanaian kingdom in western Africa rises
to power
and reaches its apogee of power in 1050.
500 C.E. Svealand
The
first Swedish state, Svealand, is founded around
500.
The Goths inhabit the southern part of the Scandinavian
Peninsula.
Much of what
is known about
early Sweden is taken
from the epic Beowulf, written
in 700 C.E.
500 C.E. Introduction of Zero
Indian mathematicians revolutionize arithmetic by introducing zero (0) to number systems.
503–557 C.E. Persian-Roman Wars
Between 503 and 557, three successive wars—interrupted by
periods of peace—are
fought between the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. In 567 a peace is reached
under which Rome agrees to pay the Persians
30,000 pieces of gold annually, the borders between the empires are reaffirmed, Christian worship
is to be protected in the Persian
Empire, and regulations regarding
trade and diplomatic
relations are delineated.
507 C.E. Kingdom of Franks
Clovis defeats the Visigoths under Alaric II at the Battle of Vouille. The Visigoths
retreat into Spain,
where they retain
their empire.
530 C.E. Western Monasticism
Saint
Benedict formulates his rule, enabling monasteries in Europe
to preserve treasures
of civilization as the Roman Empire
decays.
532 C.E. Nika Revolt
A popular uprising against
the emperor
Justinian
occurs in Constantinople, but the emperor, with
the support
of Empress Theodora,
crushes the revolt.
537 C.E. Hagia Sophia Basilica
Built
The Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is
completed. The basilica
represents the apogee of
Byzantine architecture. It was later made into a mosque by the Ottomans in 1450.
550 C.E. Gupta Empire
Ends
India
is disrupted by rebels
and Huna invaders.
552 C.E. Battle at Taginae
The Byzantine army invades Italy and defeats the
Ostrogoths using a combination of pikes
and bows.
552 C.E. Buddhism Introduced to Japan
Buddhist missionaries from
Korea reach Japan and begin to influence the Yamato court.
558–650 C.E. The Avars
The Avars,
a
Turkish
Mongolian group,
form an empire that extends from the Volga
to the Hungarian plains. In 626, they
lay siege to Constantinople but are forced to withdraw.
565 C.E. Justinian the Great
Justinian the Great
dies in 565, bringing to an end 38 years of rule as leader of the Byzantine Empire. Under his stewardship, the empire
expands to include all of North Africa and parts
of the Middle
East as well as Italy and Greece. Under Justinian, the first comprehensive compilation of Roman
law is issued, known
as Justinian’s Code.
572 C.E. Leovigild, King of Visigoths
Leovigild, king of the Visigoths,
reinvigorates the
empire and extends Visigoth dominance over all of the Iberian Peninsula.
581 C.E. Sui Dynasty Reunites
China
After nearly
four centuries of
internal
divisions and
strife, China
reunites under
the leadership of Yang Jian
under the
Sui dynasty.
Yang
uses Buddhism, Daoism,
and Confucianism to help unite the realm.
598 C.E. Pope Greogory Obtains 30-Year Truce
Gregory the Great is the first
monk to become pope; he controls the civil
affairs of Rome and expands the power
of the
church. Gregory also negotiates
a 30- year truce with the Lombards to
ensure the independence of Rome.
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